The Role Of Progesterone In Sexual Attraction
Tithing: A Biblical Foundation
SWOT Analysis of X Company Website
Comparative analysis of poems by W. Blake and W. Shakespeare
Gun Violence In America
The Role Of Progesterone In Sexual Attraction
Progesterone is a sex hormone, which controls the second half of the menstrual
cycle. It belongs to a group of sex hormones, called the gonadal hormones. These
hormones are the ones involved in sexual attraction process. The other two related
to progesterone hormones are estrogen and testosterone. The gonadal hormones
are secreted primarily by the testes and ovaries, placenta (the sac of nutritive
tissue that supports and protects the fetus), and adrenal glands. The chief
function of all of them is to regulate the development of the secondary sex
characteristics such as deepening of the voice in males and distribution of
body hair. Generally, secretion of estrogen increases sexual desire and progesterone
decreases it.
Along with the above-mentioned sexual hormones, scientists, in the recent times,
tend to associate pheromone with sexual attraction as well. Pheromone, odor
produced by an animal that affects the behavior of other animals. The way pheromones
work is analogous to the way hormones in the body send specific chemical signals
from one set of cells to another, causing them to perform a certain action.
The study, led by psychologists Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock at the
University of Chicago in Illinois, appears to demonstrate that women's underarm
odors can change the timing of other women's reproductive cycles. This means
that humans can affect each other's behavior (including sexual behavior) by
secreting odors, pheromones.
Progesterone, hormone formed by the granulosa cells of the corpus luteum of
the ovary. The corpus luteum is a structure in the ovary that develops at the
site where a mature egg was released at ovulation. Therefore the level of progesterone
rises in the second half of the menstrual cycle. If the released ovum is not
fertilized, production of progesterone falls just before the onset of the next
menstrual cycle and the corpus luteum degenerates. Progesterone was isolated
and crystallized by three independent groups of investigators in 1934. It is
a steroid hormone, a compound possessing the same chemical nucleus as the female
estrogenic hormones and the male androgenic hormones, as well as cholesterol
and adrenal steroid hormones. The principal function of progesterone is the
preparation of the mucous membrane of the uterus for the reception of the ovum.
The hormone also stimulates the formation of saclike structures in the lacteal
glands in preparation for their function of producing milk, and inhibits the
release in the pituitary of prolactin hormone.
Formation, functions and development of progesterone in a woman's body have
certain distinct features. Women are born with a finite number of ovarian follicles
that develop into eggs. The process of ovulation, in which an egg is released
from the ovary, is regulated by several sex hormones. As a woman matures and
passes through her reproductive years, an egg is released each month and her
supply of eggs gradually decreases. As menopause approaches, ovarian follicles
gradually become less sensitive to the hormones that control ovulation, follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), increasingly disrupting
egg development and ovulation. The ovaries produce less estrogen, which directs
the growth of the uterine lining during the first part of the menstrual cycle.
Even when ovulation continues to occur, the decreased sensitivity to LH causes
problems in the development and function of the corpus luteum (the ovarian follicle
after ovulation). This leads to deficiencies in the production of progesterone,
the hormone that controls the second half of the menstrual cycle. The hypothalamus,
the part of the brain that controls hormone production and regulation, recognizes
these hormone deficiencies and signals the pituitary gland, located in the base
of the brain, to increase production of FSH and LH.
The reproductive organs are often ascribed credit for human sexual attraction.
However, it has been proved by many scientists that sexual attraction begins
in a pea-sized structure called the hypothalamus deep in the primitive part
of the human brain. This tiny bundle of nerves sets off an exciting chain of
events when one person perceives another to be sexually attractive. The hypothalamus
instantly notifies the pituitary gland, which rushes hormones to the sex glands.
The sex glands, in turn, promptly react by producing estrogen, progesterone,
and testosterone - the sex hormones, which are responsible for the sexual desire.
Within seconds, the heart pounds, muscles tense; he or she feels dizzy, light-headed,
and the tingling of sexual arousal. This chemical driven high induces moods,
which swing from omnipotence and optimism to anxiety and pining. A malfunctioning
hypothalamus can have bizarre effects on one's romantic love life, including
irrational and distorted romantic choices, obsessions, idealization, and separation
anxiety. The height of romantic passion creates illusions of well-being, feelings
of possessiveness, and happily-ever-after fantasies within the psyche of the
new lover. On the darker side of infatuation, jealousy and blind rage may surface
as well (Donahue, 1985).
An increase in sexual activity around the time of ovulation and another smaller
increase around menses may be attritubuted to hormones. The peak in behavior
may coincide with increased estrogen levels. Right before ovulation, the follicles
are secreting high amounts of estradiol. High amounts of androgens are secreted
and then converted to estradiol. It could be that testosterone is the best aphrodisiac
and may be much stronger in women than men.
Considering the facts mentioned above, it can be concluded that progesterone
occupies a special place in the row of sex hormones. In the same manner as testosterone
is responsible for stimulating the development of the male secondary sex characteristics
after puberty, causing growth of the beard and pubic hair, development of the
penis, and change of voice, estrogen - for controlling the growth of the lining
of the uterus during the first part of the menstrual cycle and increasing the
sexual attraction, progesterone is known for decreasing the sexual desire.
Bibliography:
- http://psych.lmu.edu/hbes/websites.htm
- http://www.evoyage.com/7.html
- Evolutionary psychology and natural rejection: Thoughts on Rejection in the
Mating Process
- http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~taflinge/socsex.html
- Taking Advantage: Social Basis of Human Behavior: Sex by Richard F. Taflinger
http://mitpress.mit.edu/book.tcl?isbn=0262620936
- The Sexual Brain by Simon LeVay
- Donahue, Philip (1985). The human animal. New York: Simon & Schuster
- Cowley (1996). The Biology of Beauty. Newsweek, 25, pp.60-67.
- Sagan, Carl & Druyan, Ann. (1992). Shadows of forgotten ancestors. New
York: Random House
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Tithing: A Biblical Foundation
Give and it will be given to you;
good measure, pressed down,
shaken together, running over,
will be put into you lap.
Luke 6:38
Throughout all its history, church and money always walked together. For many
centuries Catholic Church was one of the most powerful political, religious
and financial forces in Europe. Recently, the church has abandoned such a status
of moneybox for clergy, and gradually the problem of money and the church has
been revised. Every institution, which has spiritual purpose for its existence
and does not have any kind of profit as its objective, sooner or later faces
with the dilemma of financial support and assistance. It is necessary for the
church to be separated from the state to maintain its spiritual nature and purpose
that is why the church cannot be financed by the government.
Some may argue that the church can obtain resources from its activity and thus
be self-financing institution. However, this kind of activity is very dangerous
for the church as well as for the believers: without proper supervision such
an activity may result in the selling of indulgencies as it already happened
in the history. The only proper way for the church to be financed and thus to
exist is to gather a tithe from its parish. However, tithing at the church should
not be completely mandatory since this is not very ethical and can make negative
impact on the church's image. The only possible way is to bring up the parish
to be obedient in tithing, and pastors should teach people to tithe, to budget
and to manage their resources.
The Bible refers to tithes and offerings, when it speaks of giving. In the Scripture
God asked people to give a minimum of ten percent of whatever they received.
Tithe means a tenth. Some people who give regularly therefore consider themselves
to be tithers. While regular and consistent giving is good stewardship discipline,
it is not necessarily tithing. In the Scriptures the first ten percent of a
person's income whatever it was and however it came, was set aside as the God's
tithe and was considered holy. All the tithe of the land, whether of the seed
of the land or of the fruit of the trees, is the Lord's; it is holy to the Lord.
(Leviticus 27:30) Since it was believed that the ten percent was the God's anyway,
one did not begin to give an offering until one went beyond the ten percent.
In view of the Bible, therefore, the tithe was ten percent and the minimum that
an individual gave to God. The tithe was the Lord's and was set aside and looked
upon as holy.
Some will question the biblical standard of giving as stiff, tough, and demanding.
Tithing requires a level of cheerful giving or commitment that can be attained
only through love and obedience. Two things should be understood for tithing.
First is that giving is not simply a matter of money. People have been blessed,
and have received much in many ways other than material blessings. The parable
in Matthew 18:23-35 teaches us of the unforgiving servant. If we have been forgiven,
then we ought to give some forgiveness to others. If God has been patient with
us - with our broken promises, and good intentions that never got off the ground
- then we ought to be patient with the faults and failing of others. The second
thing is that giving is also a matter of service. Mark 1:30-32 tells the story
of Jesus' healing Peter's mother. When the fever left her, she began to serve.
She not only shouted, testified, thanked, but also served.
The believers ought to be stingy with their service, to serve however they can,
wherever they can and whenever they can - with a glad mind and a willing spirit.
If they are never recognized or their names are never called, that is all right.
They are not serving for the recognition or even a future awards. What is important
is that they render service to a God who is good - all the time. In trouble
and trials, sickness and sorrow, through problems and pain, God is good - all
the time. That is why they are singing in the choir, making sacrifice as a member,
meeting late at night on special projects, volunteering in the office, taking
time with the young and old, caring for the sick, strengthening the faith of
the discouraged - because God has been good to them, and God's Word tells that
from everyone to whom much has been given, much will be required; and from the
one to whom much has been entrusted, even more will be demanded. (Luke 12:48b,
NRSV)
As the believers try to answer the questions of how much and what they should
give to God, an important thing they should realize is that they can give only
from the works of their own hands. God has never required to give what the believer
does not have or has not produced, but God does expect a person to do the best
with the fruit of his own hand. One may not be able to render the same kind
of service that someone else renders when one does not have the same talent,
youth, education, or physical ability or vitality. You cannot give sheep if
you have been raising corn, and you cannot give corn if you have been raising
sheep - and Lord does not expect people to do so. But God does expect a decent
offering of the fruit the believers do have.
Thus tithing is giving of tenth of money, or time, or talent. Some of the parish
are devoted to the community work and helping people outside the church, and
it is indeed also tithing their time and talent. However, many pastors believe
that whatever else we do in the community, some of our time and talent still
ought to be devoted to the church, for that is bringing the tithe into the storehouse.
(Watley, 41) They have for that many reasons, some of which are valid. Tithing
is one-tenth, and unless one is giving at least one-tenth, then one is not tithing.
(Watley, 35) The main reason of pastors for tithing is that the Bible teaches
to bring the offerings to God. Many of them, however, understand that the church
cannot exist without the tithing of the parish, and this is a good reason for
the church to use the offerings without any doubt. In fact, the church needs
the financial support from the believers, however, the tithing as well as offering
should be completely voluntary. Pastors do not have to enforce the decisions
of the parishioners to tithe or offer. Another reason is that the pastors are
often subjective, and bigotry is not in help in this case. In practice things
are doing in the other ways.
Some of us think that the tithe is the maximum and that once we have tithed
we have given all. But the tithe is not the maximum; it is the minimum. That
is why the Scriptures speak of tithes and offerings. What most of us call an
offering is not really an offering since most of us do not give even the basic
tithe…(Neuhaus, 62) This is an example of how many of pastors make a pressure
on the parishioners, arguing that not giving a tithe or not proper offering
characterizes the believer negatively.
Some will question the biblical standard of giving as stiff, tough, and demanding.
The amount of money the Bible calls for as a standard for giving will be looked
upon as too much by some. Fro others it will seem as a great sacrifice. However,
if we really care, then no amount is too great and no sacrifice is too large.
For how can we put a price tag on love? Love can be demanding because it costs
to love. Anyone who wants to get away with giving minimums does not love because
whether we are loving God, a friend, our children, our spouse, our relatives,
our church, or even an enemy, love calls for maximums not minimums. Tithing
requires a level of cheerful commitment that can be attained only through love.
(Sider, 191) In fact, the pastors could and should direct their parishioners
towards righteous things.
Most obedient believers, however, do their best to contribute for the church
and to support it. And if they do not have sufficient resources to accomplish
it, the pastors should definitely compare this with a sin, which can result
for the believer in a great stress. Dr. Sider argues that love to God can be
valued, and valued at the certain some of money, which is hidden under percent.
Love to God cannot be estimated, but measured by our thoughts, efforts and endeavors.
The best thing pastor can do in such a case is be unbiased, to motivate his
parish to be active participants in community's life, and to contribute by hearts,
not by money.
Tithing and giving the offerings always be a stumbling block for the relationships
between pastor and his parish. Tithing is very important for the church to exist,
however the church is primarily a spiritual organization and any money relationships
do not make the church perfect, such as it should be. Although tithing is considered
to have a Biblical foundation, almost all the claims for it are taken from the
Old Testament, and therefore are obsolete and should be taken out of use. Objectively,
the tithing must be completely voluntary and not enforceable and especially
when the pastors do not have a right to do so. However, they do have a right
to require from their parish to be active and do their best to contribute to
the life of the community and the church.
Works cited:
- The Bible, New International Version
- The Bible, New Revised Standard Version
- Richard John Neuhaus, Valley Forge, 1992
- Ronald J. Sider, Rich Christians, Word Publishing, 1990
- William D. Watley, Bring The Full Tithe, Judson Press, 1995
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SWOT Analysis of X Company Website
(The name of the company is undisclosed for privacy purposes)
X's core service is investing private foreign capital in Western Europe. Its
website is the supplementary service provided by the company. Because X provides
intangible services, by the means of performing actions that are directed at
their clients' assets, it can be called an information processing service-provider.
X's service strategy appears to be an adaptive application (Internet site supplements
the core service), with a publishing website. However, it is most probable that
as the business grows and the number of clients increases throughout the world,
the company will have to move more and more towards the electronic delivery
of its services. This will require a more transformative application, when the
site will be the major driver of a firm's strategy.
Strengths:
- Existence of the site makes the intangible services provided by X more tangible
for the clients. Considering that investments are in the category of high-risk
services, this feeling of "tangibility" is extremely relevant to the
existing and potential clients.
- Site allows X to:
- Enable clients to do more self-service tasks - e.g. learn about company's
background, info search, etc.
- Cut on costs of providing customized information to clients - e.g. no need
in sending printed materials (brochures) about the company and maintaining operators
for answering questions, etc.
- All types of physical evidence are present in the site:
- Effect-creating median - site design increases the "appetite" for
the service - clear and concrete text, which creates positive image.
- Message-creating median - there is the X logo and slogan at each page, which
enhances the company's image.
- Attention-creating median - professional site design, with a usage of pleasant
colors, banners and GIF applications, printable version of each page.
Such a comprehensive usage of evidence medians reinforces trust in the company.
In clients' minds, professionalism of the site design implies professional conduct
in the investment services.
- The site is very large, contains maximum information about all areas of company's
activity (i.e. descriptions of business lines and services provided; photos
of top managers; complete contact page, with a space for comments, etc.). The
site creates a very positive image of a transparent and honest business that
X is.
Weaknesses:
- www.X.com does not have links to related sites, nor does it publish industry
market news. This is a weak point because potential clients might be interested
in the current condition of the market they are investing in, not only relying
on the info provided by X, but also from the independent source.
- The site does not give much information about the possible disadvantages and
drawbacks of X. Even though the purpose of the site is to enhance the positive
image of the company, showing what company lacks, but is working at, might add
to its image of a transparent and honest business.
- The site is a publishing website, which does not provide much interaction
with the viewer. This is a weakness, because people like customized approach,
especially when dealing with high-risk services.
Opportunities (and recommendations):
- Shift from existing publishing website to a more personalized site, which
would:
- Greet the registered client every time he/she logs in by the name. The system
might recognize either the user's computer IP code or a password.
- Allow the clients to see the history of their investment (date, portfolio,
etc), how their capital moves, how their investment has grown - analogy - postal
delivery service, which enables the client to see the movement of his package
online.
- Show the graphs and points of a specific project, because not every client
wants to know about the whole X index, and is rather interested in something
particular.
- Offer new attractive investments, based on the previous inclinations of this
client to invest into particular projects, etc.
- Include news about the company and market that might interest given client
(research can be based on his age, education, etc).
- Provide links to the sites that might be interesting for the customers, e.g.:
- It is mentioned on the site that X's investors come from 10 countries. Even
though English in an international language, it might be nice if the site could
be translated into more languages, so that clients feel that X cares about them.
- Place video materials online - e.g. speeches given by the president, etc.
- Transformation of the site: from a supplementary service to a major moving
force of the business. This, however, does not mean that physical interaction
and communication with clients should be completely eliminated. A careful research
should find what is the optimal amount of usage of "client-website"
and "client-X staff member" channels of communication.
Threats:
- Underestimation of the importance of the website by the top management, which
might lead to weak financial provision for the site's development- internal
threat, risk of activity.
- Weak consideration of clients' preferences as to the form of communication.
People from different backgrounds, different age groups, etc. are more or less
apt to use Internet site as a tool in making and monitoring their investments.
An extreme shift from one alternative to another might result in a loss of clients,
who would either think that X is not technologically friendly or, visa versa
- overuses the technology - social and cultural environment threat
- Usage of the superior technological advances or revolutionary innovation by
the strong competitors, which puts X's site in an unfavorable position - technological
environment threat.
- Changes in political system, laws or regulations after the election of the
new president and parliament. Negative shifts in the political environment might
jeopardize X's activity in Western Europe - political threats.
- Excessive state control of privatization processes in Western Europe, which
might impose difficulties in making investments for X - economical threats.
- Force-majeur risks, such as viruses in global or local systems, hacker activity,
etc.]
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Comparative analysis of poems by W. Blake and W. Shakespeare
Someone has said that everything genial is very simple. However, some people
would also argue that the more difficult the poem is, the more valuable it becomes
to the reader. In their poems, both William Blake and William Shakespeare were
able to unite simplicity of expressions and complication of symbols into two
beautiful poems. These poems are rather different, if compared to each other,
as are their composers. William Blake, an English poet and artist, infused his
poetry with mysticism and complex symbolism. Even his earliest collection of
youthful verse "Poetical Sketches," including a poem "To Winter,"
is full of unusual objects, symbols and transitions. William Shakespeare disclosed
his poetical nature in his famous sonnets. Following tradition of courtly love
poems, depicted a pure love, poet often contrasted it with real life. His sonnet
73 is considered to be one of the best examples for this issue.
In his sonnet "That time in year thou mayst in me behold…" William
Shakespeare is concerned with human life. William Blake, on the contrary, is
occupied with a description of eternity with no reference to a person. William
Shakespeare describes a time that sooner or later comes to everyone. Sometimes
it seems that everything is done, and there is nothing left to live for, and
only "yellow leaves, or none, or few" are still hanging.
However, the author is sure that there is one reason that is worth living for.
He is predicting a time, "the twilight of such a day," when everything
is changed and he perceives "the glowing of such fire," which only
a young man is able to feel. In this poem he addresses a young man, who is inexperienced,
but is already looking for a reason to live.
The author states that love is the "glowing" experience of the soul,
and it is the only thing one cannot forgo. In this poem there are two eternal
things, which follow the person through his whole life - death and love. They
are given to people from the very birth and remain their only belongings after
their lives fads away. Love for William Shakespeare is the only sense of life,
his only passion and his final devotion.
There is no place for love, passion or other feelings, but for mysticism in
William Blake's poem "To Winter." In this poem the author personifies
winter by treating it as if it were a living being. People tend to animate everything
they are afraid of. Blake is afraid of winter's might and he respects it. For
him winter is adamantine and "the north belongs to it." However, the
poet understands that winter is not a friend to him. It is dark and isolated,
- "built thou dark Deep-founded habitation", so that nobody can reach
it. Silence reigns where it lives and nothing can "shake its roofs"
or "bend its iron car's pillars." Looking at these verses readers
understand how small people are against eternity. Speaker is trying to talk
to winter, but there is no response and there is only "yawning deep."
His storms are unchained, sheathed
In ribbed steel, I dare not lift mine eyes;
For he hath reared his scepter o'er the world.
The arms of the winter are released and that scares the poet so much that he
is even not going to take a look at what is going on. The speaker acknowledges
that the time of winter has come. Winter does not have a heart or soul. Inside
it is hollow and silent, and it "freezes up life" so easily and accurately.
However, everything in life has its own turn, and now it is time for heaven
to smile and to drive away "the monster" to its "caves beneath
mount Hecla."
In order to have a complete view of both of these poems, it is necessary to
pay attention to the details, which are delivering authors' feelings and create
a mood for the reader. From the very beginning of "To Winter" the
reader is depressed by the picture of mighty and merciless nature. The first
two lines of the verse seem to sound very solemnly, due to the usage of bright
epithet "adamantine doors," but the presence of "dark deep-founded
habitation" and "iron car" in the end of the verse makes the
whole picture for the reader to be oppressive. Shakespeare's sonnet begins with
colorful details, represented with "yellow leaves," which "do
hang" and symbolize an exhausted life. However, it does not bring a feeling
of loneliness to the reader. The second verse of "To Winter" gives
a feeling of vulnerability. An epithet "yawning deep" and metaphor
"storms sheathed in ribbed steel" shows all the helplessness of a
person against the eternity. In the second verse Shakespeare does not use any
epithets except for "black night" and uses the word "death"
to indicate the opposite side of life. Due to many used adjectives Blake's poem
seems to be very active, while sonnet is reminding of a one philosophical thought
with logical conclusion. In the third verse the author applies a detailed specification
by using the expression "skin clings to his strong bones," which brings
a thorough sounding to the verse and impresses the reader very much. However,
the idea of "To Winter" is not very stable and the author's thoughts
are ambiguous. This can testify for the immaturity of the poet. Shakespeare's
though, in contrast, is very clear and easy to follow. Again, the usage of "the
death-bed" brings a sad shade to the poem. According to previous traditions
of writing, the poem "To Winter" ends up with words "yelling,"
"caves," and "mount Hecla," which are to used to restore
the mood of the poem in readers' memory.
Although poems described above differ in their mood, technical characteristics,
poetical touch and purpose, both of them are the brightest examples of their
genres. In every single line of each poem, in every word great poets remained
themselves: William Blake - mysterious and spontaneous, William Shakespeare
- solid and untouched. Experienced reader may notice that the authors have not
tried "to create one more example of poetry," but to express their
feelings in the unique and beautiful way, the way of poem.
Works sited:
- Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2002
- Techniques for poetry analysis and discussion
http://www.pfmb.uni-mb.si/eng/dept/eng/poetry/text/techniqu.htm
- Poetry Analysis: A quick reference
http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/~hblake/poetryan.html
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Gun Violence In America
Anyone who studies the history of culture will note that all new cultural
phenomena have been attacked as being degrading and immoral. Negative aspects
of a society are often blamed on the facets of culture. The advocate of cultural
freedom might point out that throughout history the media have concentrated
on controversial issues of morality. The opponents of free speech will argue
that the world has changed. That the media today is so pervasive that such material
has become commonly available. This is true to a certain extent, though.
The unstated premise of this argument is that the average person is incompetent
to make moral decisions, that the "common" man must be sheltered from
"bad" ideas. The fact is that "immoral" art and literature
have been available since the earliest days of human culture. What has changed
is that for millenniums such material was the luxury of the well to do. It was
only those in power or who had access to large sums of money that could afford
the "base" and "degrading" literature of the day.
As a result to such a development in mass media, literature and art gun violence
became one of the most important moral and social issues in America. The notable
feature of gun violence is that it spread through the whole society and infected
all its levels, from youth to old people. Here is some impressive statistics,
which shows all the importance of the issue. Every day, more than 80 Americans
die from gun violence. The rate of firearm deaths among kids under age 15 is
almost 12 times higher in the United States than in 25 other industrialized
countries combined.
The American Medical Association reports that between 36% and 50% of male eleventh
graders believe that they could easily get a gun if they wanted one. In 1998-99
academic year, 3,523 students were expelled for bringing a firearm to school.
This is a decrease from the 5,724 students expelled in 1996-97 for bringing
a firearm to school. In a single year, 3,365 children and teens were killed
by gunfire in the United States, according to the latest national data released
in 2001. That is one child in every two and a half-hours; nine children every
day; and more than 60 children every week. And every year, at least 4 times
as many kids suffer from non-fatal firearm injuries. American children are more
at risk from firearms than the children of any other industrialized nation.
In 2002, firearms killed no children in Japan, 19 in Great Britain, 57 in Germany,
109 in France, 153 in Canada, and 5,285 in the United States (Neahin.com).
According to the facts described above, gun violence is a problem with main
several causes, and media influence is only one of them. In the media, there
are numerous interactive factors that have been identified as conducive to generating
aggressive effects. Here are some examples of primary causes of violence, including
the gun related one, which are released through the media: reward or lack of
punishment for the perpetrator, portrayal of violence as justified, portrayal
of the consequences of violence in a way that does not stir distaste, portrayal
of violence without critical commentary, the presence of live peer models of
violence, and the presence of sanctioning adults.
The picture described above puts media among the key causes of gun violence,
however still there are many other factors, which lead to a gun violence development.
A list of nonmedia factors deemed significant in the development of crime and
J. Wilson and R. Herrnstein can cull the number of violently predisposed individuals
from Crime and Human Nature. The authors list constitutional, developmental,
and social-context factors including gender, age, intelligence, personality,
psychopathology, broken and abusive families, schools, community, labor markets,
alcohol and heroin, and finally history and culture.
As can be seen, most aspects of modern life are implicated, and only tangential
factors like diet and climate (which other researchers would have included)
are left out. With such a large number of factors coming into play, the levels
of interactions and complexity of relationships are obviously enormous. Moreover,
the research on gun violence by Wilson and Herrnstein suggests that certain
factors are basic to violent crime. None of these factors dominates, but none
are without significant effects.
Accordingly, the research clearly signifies the media as only some of many factors
in the generation of youth violence and that media depictions of violence do
not affect all persons in the same way. The media contribute to violence in
combination with other social and psychological factors. Whether or not a particular
media depiction will cause a particular viewer to act more aggressively is not
a straightforward issue. The emergence of an effect depends on the interaction
between each individual viewer, the content of the portrayal, and the setting
in which exposure to the media occurs. This gives the media significant aggregate
effects but makes these effects difficult to predict for individuals. There
is no doubt, however, that violent children, including those who come to have
significant criminal records, spend more time exposed to violent media than
do less violent children. The issue is not the existence of a media effect but
the magnitude or importance of the effect.
In summation, despite the fact that the media are among many factors, they should
not be ignored, regardless of the level of their direct impact. Because social
violence is a pressing problem, even those factors that only modestly contribute
to it are important. Small effects of the media accumulate and appear to have
significant long-term social effects (R. Rosenthal). The research strongly indicates
that we are a more violent society because of our mass media. Exactly how and
to what extent the media cause long-term changes in violent behavior remains
unknown, but the fact that it plays an important, but not independent, role
is generally conceded.
What public policies are suggested by the knowledge we now possess about media
and violence? Not all of the factors discussed above are good candidates for
public intervention strategies, but there are three sources of youth violence
that government policy can influence. In order of importance, they are: extreme
differences in economic conditions and the concentration of wealth in America;
the American gun culture; and, exacerbating the problems created by the first
two, the media's violence-enhancing messages. Family, neighborhood, and personality
factors may be more important for generating violence in absolute magnitude,
but they are not easily influenced by public actions.
The magnitude of economic disparity and the concentration of wealth in the United
States is greater than in comparable (and, not surprisingly, less violent) societies.
Our richest citizens not only earn vastly more than our poorest, but, more important,
the wealth in the country is increasingly concentrated in fewer and fewer hands.
The trend during this century, which accelerated during the 1980s, is for an
ever-shrinking percentage of the richest Americans to control greater proportions
of the country's wealth, while the poorest have access to increasingly smaller
proportions. The burden of this economic disenfranchisement, both psychologically
and fiscally, falls heavily on the young, and especially on the young who are
urban poor minorities, as is shown In Elliott Currie's 1985 study Confronting
Crime. In a consumerism saturated society like the United States, hopelessness,
bitterness, and disregard for moral values and law are heightened by this growing
economic disparity.
The second area that government policy can immediately address is the gun culture
in America. Our culture of violence, referred to in the opening quote, is made
immeasurably more deadly by the enfolded gun culture. The availability of guns
as cheap killing mechanisms is simply a national insanity. The mass production
of these killing "toys" and the easy access to them must be addressed.
The most recent statistics show that one out of every ten high school students
report that they carry a handgun. Gun buy-back programs should be supported,
and production and availability must be reduced if a positive net effect is
to be expected. Irrespective of the difficulty of controlling the sources of
individual violent behavior, the implements of fatal violence should not be
ignored.
The third area of policy concern, the mass media, exacerbates the gun culture
by portraying guns as glamorous, effective, omnipotent devices. The mass media
also heighten the negative effects of economic disparities through their consumer
messages in advertising and entertainment. Although both of these effects that
add to the problem of youth violence are sometimes discussed, the debate about
the media remains tightly focused on measuring and reviewing violent media content.
Within this focus, the emphasis has been on counting violent acts rather than
on exploring the context of its portrayal. Deciphering the media's moral and
value messages about violence has been mostly ignored.
Bibliography:
- Jim Peron, Friedrich Naumann Foundation, "Media, Markets and Morality",
2000
- James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature, Simon &
Schuster, New York, 1985.
- R. Rosenthal (1986), "Media Violence, Anti-Social Behavior, and the Social
Consequences of Small Effects," Journal of Social Issues 42:141-54
- NEAHIN.com - statistical information about gun violence
- For a listing of examples see S. Pease and C. Love, "The Copy-Cat Crime
Phenomenon," in Justice and the Media by R. Surette (Springfield, IL: Charles
C. Thomas, 1984), 199-211; and A. Schmid and J. de Graaf, Violence as Communication
(Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1982).
- T. Cook, D. Kendzierski and S. Thomas (1993),"The Implicit Assumptions
of Television Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 47:191-92.
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